Truth is something which can't be told in a few words. Those who simplify the universe only reduce the expansion of its meaning.
Anais Nin (1903-77)
Everything in this universe is part of an uninterrupted sequence of events.
Mamoru Mohri (b.1948)
What else is there besides the universe? Nothing, because by definition the universe includes everything, for instance, space, time and matter. Space is conceived as extendedness with three dimensions, and time as an awareness of the succession of events in space. This all-inclusiveness consists of a multitude of connected parts; hence, breaking it up into sections or realms is warranted for better comprehension. The physical world is foundational and gave rise to all other complex phenomena. Nature is an all-inclusive reality. Most significantly, it gave rise to the evolution of life from the primordial base of matter and energy. The most complex product of evolution is the human brain. This organ produces mind or mental ability like the eye produces sight or the stomach generates digestion. But most amazingly, this natural faculty constructs systems of thought such as mathematics, science, philosophy, morality, music, poetry and religion, etc. In humans, unquestionably, the universe has become conscious of itself. This concept refers to a person’s self-awareness as a conscious experience of a distinct, personal identity that is separate from all other people and things. What do we know about the physical world?
- It started with a gigantic explosion known as the Big Bang about 14 billion years ago (1 billion equals 1,000 million).
- It exists as a system in infinite space. It is still evolving, expanding, and cooling down.
- It operates according to a few observed regularities we call laws of nature. Therefore, the world is orderly, and even the chaos in it can be explained. Hence, there is a unity of the natural sciences. Also, these regularities are the same everywhere in the universe.
- It consists of all the matter and the energy produced by the four basic forces: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong and weak nuclear force. Matter and energy are mutually convertible.
- It gave rise to all the things and phenomena that exist now. They all consist of matter and energy or they are totally dependent on them for their existence. For instance, the phenomena mind depends on the energized matter of the brain.
- Its events and objects can be located within the space-time continuum in which time has been combined with space.
- It is regarded as a whole that includes Earth, the solar system, the galaxies, and the content of intergalactic space.
It combines space and time into a single construct. As we have seen, space is the three dimensional expanse in which all objects are located, and time is the fourth dimension in which all events are located. It is a f
our-dimensional description that can locate an event, and its relation to objects, in terms of space and time. This became necessary because disagreement arises concerning the simultaneity of distant events when observed by different scientists in relative motion to each other and applying Newtonian physics where space and time had been thought of as wholly separate entities. However, Einstein's theory of relativity and Minovski's work show that they are in fact intimately intertwined. Why do some claim time and space originated with the Big Bang? Immediately prior to the Big Bang there where no events--there was nothing for time to order and to measure. This changed when the Big Bang occurred and started events. So, in a sense the Big Bang started time. Many perceive space as an expanse containing matter or things. But before the Big Bang there was no matter, thus, no need for space. This changed when the Big Bang converted energy into matter. So, in a sense the Big Bang originated space. Is there a fundamental constant? Yes, the speed of light is the fundamental constant. Not time or space as thought in earlier times, for both will warp to preserve the value of the speed of light. For example, the closer an object moves to the speed of light, the slower its internal clock, but not the clock of an observer, will run. Moreover, at the speed of light, the internal clock stops completely. A high energy particle could move to the center of our galaxy in its own time in about 10 minutes, but an earthbound observer would see it take 10,000 years. Also, gravity can greatly effect space and time. For instance, in the vicinity of very dense matter such as neutron stars and black holes, time slows down and light no longer travels in straight lines but bends to follow the curvature of space. What are the four basic forces? 1. Gravity as a force comes from the gravitational mass which is an inherent property of all material particles and bodies composed of them. It is speculated that this force is carried and transmitted by particles, not yet discovered, named gravitons. Gravitational masses attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the masses. Also, it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the masses. This force is unlimited in range and governs the motion of the planets orbiting the Sun, the solar system orbiting the center of the Milky Way galaxy, and, of course, the Earth's own gravitational field. 2. Electromagnetism has both wave and particle characteristics simultaneously. If detected in wave form, it is composed of an electric and magnetic wave oscillating at right angles to each other. Photons (from Greek, meaning light) are the particles that transmit and carry this force. Electromagnetic interaction gives rise to electric and magnetic forces between charged particles. Hence, electricity and magnetism are just different aspects of a single electromagnetic force. The force is produced by an electric charge in motion, for instance, electrons moving in a wire (electricity). Also, like gravity, it is unlimited in range. Electromagnetism is responsible for the structures of atoms, molecules, liquids, solids and all chemical reactions. As such, it makes life as we know it possible. Moreover, with the exception of gravity, this force is involved in virtually all the phenomena one experiences every day and includes such electromagnetic phenomena as motors, generators, radio, television, microwave, lights, electric stove, x-ray machines and all other electronic equipment. The Electromagnetic Spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation. Radiation in the form of waves that vary according to length (measured crest to crest) and their frequency of occurrence. The product of length and frequency is always the speed of light. Wavelength, measured from crest to crest, varies from thousands of kilometers long (and possibly infinitely long) down to a fraction of the size of an atom. Hence, frequency, cycles per second, ranges from approximately 1023 hertz to 0 hertz. or, in corresponding wavelengths, from 10-13 centimeter to infinity. In order of decreasing frequency there are: gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, and radio, TV waves. All types of this radiation are basically the same phenomenon, differing only by wavelength and frequency. Again, all move at the speed of light, the product of wavelength and frequency.
(Photo source: Wikipedia)
3. The Strong Nuclear Force or interaction binds together the
neutrons and protons within the atom's nucleus. In the case of the
positively charged protons, it has to overcome their repelling force. The
particles that transmit this force are named gluons.
4. The Weak nuclear
force
or interaction between some of the subatomic particles accounts for the
phenomenon of radioactivity, which is the spontaneous, but slow,
disintegration of the atom's nucleus by the emission of subatomic
particles. The particles that carry this force are named bosons
(intermediate vector bosons).
What is
matter?
1. All matter is made up of of one
or more of the basic constituents known as the 92 naturally occurring
elements.
The simplest and most basic element or
building block is hydrogen. It consists of a single positively charged
proton in its nucleus and it is orbited by a single negatively charged
electron. The charges cancel each other out. All other elements are fused
in stars starting with the fusion of hydrogen into the next heavier
element. This process continues and there are about 92 naturally occurring
elements in nature.
See
Nuclear Fusion
Diagrams.
2.
All matter has mass,
which is a measure of the quantity of matter it contains.
Also, due to its mass, all matter has the
properties of gravitation and inertia. Inertia is the resistance to
being moved when at rest or its resistance to acceleration, deceleration
and directional change when in motion.
3.
Mass is not
dependent on gravity and therefore is different from its weight.
For example, a given mass weighs only 1/5 on the moon than what it weighs
on Earth because the moon's gravity pull is only 1/5 that of Earth.
4.
All matter has extension, that is, it takes up space. And because
of this property, it
can be perceived by one or more of our
senses or instruments that extend our senses.
5. All matter has
chemical
properties which describe the ability of matter to change to new
substances. For instance, the gases hydrogen and oxygen form water (H2O).
That is,
two hydrogen and one oxygen atom
change two form one molecule of water. Note: chemical change involves
forming new substances.
6. All
matter has
physical properties that describe matter as it is. For
example,
solid, gaseous, liquid, density, specific gravity, hardness, odor, color
and accidental properties such as weight, dimensions, and volume. Note
that physical change modifies these properties but does not change the
substance.
For instance, the compound water, H2O, can be gaseous (steam), liquid, or
solid (ice). Modifications to all of the properties noted do not
change the substance.
7. All matter
exists as either a) elements, b) compounds, and c) mixtures.
a) Elements are the basic constituents of all matter, including compounds and mixtures.
b) Compounds are pure substances made up of elements which are chemically combined. When elements form compounds, they lose all of their properties, and a new set of properties unique to the compound come into existence. For instance, the gases hydrogen and oxygen form the liquid water (H2O). Also, compounds can be decomposed into their elements only by some type of chemical change. For instance, water can be decomposed through electrolysis. About 5 million compounds are known.
c) Mixtures are combinations of substances held together by physical means. For example, a mixture of milk and raisins in a container. The ingredients of a mixture retain their own attributes. They may be separated by physical means, e.g., pouring the milk-raisin mixture into a sieve.
What else is there? The Universe in a Single Helium Atom diagram lists the four basic forces of the universe and the constituents of atoms of ordinary matter (see The Life Force for a diagram). But there are other particles, Quarks and Leptons, that existed immediately after the Big Bang. They are now found only in cosmic rays and accelerators where they are artificially produced. The Quarks are named Charm, Strange, Bottom, and Top (not yet found but thought to exist). The Leptons are called Muon (a heavier relative of the electron), Tau (an even heavier relative), Muon Neutrino (originate along with Muons when some particles decay), and the Tau Neutrino (not jet found but thought to exist). Is there antimatter? According to the widely accepted theory of particle physics, every particle has a corresponding antiparticle with the same mass but opposite charge. Indeed, physicists have demonstrated the antiparticles of electrons (positrons), protons (antiprotons), and neutron (antineutron). The antimatter atom would form in perfect analogy to the ordinary atom, that is, its nucleus would consist of antiprotons and antineutrons surrounded by positrons. If an atom of matter is brought in contact with its antimatter counterpart, they annihilate each other while releasing a burst of energy in accordance with Einstein's equation E= mc2. Considered that all matter is generated together with antimatter, it is astonishing that the observable universe is seemingly almost entirely ordinary matter. Nobody knows why this is the case. However, since antimatter separate from ordinary matter would be stable, it is speculated that there may be anti-worlds in the universe. What is energy? It is the ability of one system to do work on another system. There are many kinds of energy but they can all be traced back to the four basic forces. Moreover, like matter, energy cannot be destroyed. What disappears in one form must reappear in another. This phenomena is called the Conservation of Energy. Here is an energy-connecting example: 1. Nuclear energy released from the fusion of hydrogen radiates from the Sun and reaches Earth in the form of electromagnetic waves, which we can partly sense as light and heat. 2. This heat evaporates water that rises and forms clouds. Under the right conditions the vapor is released in the form of rain which is collected in a reservoir higher up forming potential energy. 3. When released, gravity turns the water into kinetic energy which when driving a turbine turns into mechanical energy. 4. The turbine is coupled to an electric generator (alternator, dynamo) that produces electric energy, that is, a flow of electrons in a conductor together with a magnetic field around that conductor. This electromagnetic force is then used to power: a) Electric motors (mechanical energy) b) Heating elements (heat energy) c) Filaments in light bulbs (electromagnetic radiation* that acts upon the eye). d) Other devices produce almost all parts of the full electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, AM, FM, TV, micro waves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays). What is work? In physics it is the transference of energy that occurs when the product of a force is applied to a body that is moving in such a way that the force furthers the displacement of the body in the direction of its motion. In the preceding example, gravity pulls the stream of water in the direction of its flow. Also, the gravity powered water pushes the turbine blades in the direction of their rotation. How does matter and energy relate to each other? They are considered as equivalents because they are mutually convertible according to Einstein's formula, E=mc2 (Energy equals mass multiplied by the square of the speed of light). For example, in our mother star, the Sun, hydrogen atoms are fused into helium atoms. The helium atom, however, weighs about 1% less than the four hydrogen atoms that form it. The disappeared matter is mostly converted into the energy that powers the Sun and makes life on Earth as we know it possible. But when and where did matter and energy originate? Neither matter nor energy can be created or destroyed. It follows that what cannot be created is self existing, it always existed. And together with if it cannot be destroyed, then it is eternal, that is, it has neither beginning nor an end in time. Hence, the question about where and when does not apply. Moreover, though the two are mutually convertible, it follows that it is a logical impossibility for anyone to create or destruct matter or energy. Why do we think of space as infinite rather than finite? Well, if we could travel far beyond the observable universe, perhaps we could find out instead of just speculating. However, we can make this expedition in a thought experiment. Let's travel in a space ship at a speed of one billion times that of light. It follows that we move in one year the distance known as a one billion light years. We travel, of course, in a straight line and in the opposite direction from where we think the Universe originated. After a few years we reach the end of the observable cosmos, yet we keep on going. Now we can imagine that we go on forever. But we cannot imagine that we come to a border where space ends because we will always want to know what is on the other side or beyond. How long will the universe continue to expand? When a rocket goes up into the sky it will either go into outer space or fall back to the ground. It all depends whether or not it reaches sufficient speed, called the escape velocity, to overcome Earth's gravitational pull. And so it is with the expansion of the universe. It all depends whether or not the Big Bang produced sufficient mass, that is, gravitational force to hold the expansion. We know the velocity of expansion, but we do not know how much mass is out there. So, the expansion 1. may go on forever, 2. come to a halt, thus, steady, 3. or there will be a contraction, a "big crunch," followed by another big Bang, ad infinitum. Are there forces beyond nature involved in all this? Science has no need for such assumptions because it wouldn't explain anything. That which always existed is self-existing and never required a creating force. And if it cannot be destroyed then it is eternal and does not need a maintaining force. Also, assuming supernatural phenomena would violate the principle of parsimony (see below). Moreover, it would lead to infinite regress because we would have to ask where did this creating force come from, ad infinitum. What is the principle of parsimony? Also known as Ockham's razor, it demands that causes are not to be multiplied beyond necessity. It is the philosophical or scientific principle according to which the best explanation of an event is the one that is the simplest, using the fewest assumptions or hypotheses. It applies to all systems of thought, worldviews, religions, etc. Also, nature works by this principle as Isaac Newton (1642-1727) observed: "Nature does nothing in vain, and more is in vain when less will do." Basic assumptions or how do we avoid infinite regress? To avoid infinite regress, for example, who created the universe? God! And who created God? A super God! And who . . . ad infinitum. Therefore, all systems of thought, theories, religions, sciences, etc., start with basics that are presupposed. These basics are known as presuppositions, postulates or assumptions. They are assumed to be true and are not further analyzed in the form of asking what is their cause. For instance: a) Natural sciences presuppose an orderly and observable physical universe. b) Human sciences postulate cultural universals and a common human nature. c) The Judeo-Christian-Islamic religions assume the existence of their version of God. d) Buddhism and Hinduism accept as true the cosmic Law of Karma. The crucial test, however, is whether or not the presupposed conditions are factual, that is, supported by credible evidence. At a minimum they should be plausible and withstand the principle of parsimony because everything else is wholly or in part derived from them. It definitely does not mean that we can plausibly derive anything we wish for by simply changing what we presuppose. While there is plenty of evidence that this is often done in politics, economics, philosophy, and religion, it is intellectually dishonest and often harmful.